In France classical designs were integrated into the Late Rococo as one moves to Late Neoclassical a romanticism infuses designs. Ideas of society become reflected in how design is translated. France suffers a tremendous revolution and in 1789 people rise up as there is a push by the general population to take the monarchy out of power. Economically the country is in a state of total disorder. People want to shift to a parliamentary system. This shift takes place over an extended period of time.

By 1799 the country becomes settled. Napoleon Bonoparte takes over as emperor in France over the following 5 years and during these 5 years the style is Directoire. During the Directoire style period the Guild system is destroyed through which cabinet makers were organized.Economy is unsettled and there is a continuation of Louis the XVI style. Furniture is painted in pastel colours and there is a really intense interest in Forms from Greek and Roman original architecture and design. Where as in the Louis XVI period classical was reinterpreted in Rococo. 

There is no attempt to completely change furniture but there is more of an attempt to include seriously classical ornament. Solid mahogany wood is prevalent. Bed a la frances is now put against the wall. Low pediments can be seen. The arm chair back now has soft curves. The front of chairs has a bow to the seat which is a continuation of Louis the XVI style. Blocks with rosettes integrate the leg and support of the arm with the seat. Furthermore, the use of solid wood reduces work that goes into making furniture. 

Georges Jacob a stylish and fashionable French chairmaker of the 1790s produced chairs with back legs similar to  klismsos chair with a broad horizontal support and rear legs which are splayed.  Front legs are turned and sometimes in animal form.

Georges Jacob – Image courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art

https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/202141

The leading woman of fashion during this era was Madame Recamier. Furthermore, France is expanding during this era and military style becomes high style. Draped walls resemble a military tent. Having mirror behind them or even above a fireplace exposed by pulling drapes away. Example could be seen below in Madame Recaimer’s bed chamber.

Image courtesy of French Wikipedia

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Lit_de_Madame_R%C3%A9camier.jpg

The Monarchy revived with the accession of Napoleon to the throne. As a result, rich textiles in the upholstery can be seen. One or two colour upholstery becomes typical. A typical Empire style chair has a curve back, with a front leg turned with fluting at top. Sabor form can be seen in the back leg.

Malmaison the main residence for Josephine and Napoleon, has interiors with glorious rich colour. There is strong and direct reference to classical motifs. Paintings similar to Pompeii can be seen. Simplification of architecture is prevalent as no heavy cornice mouldings can be seen. Wood has high sheen finish.

Malmaison Dining Room – Image courtesy of Architectural Digest

https://www.architecturaldigest.com/gallery/chateau-malmaison-napoleon-josephine-bonaparte

Malmaison – Image courtesy of Architectural Digest

https://www.architecturaldigest.com/gallery/chateau-malmaison-napoleon-josephine-bonaparte

Porcelain has simple block form.

The Council Room in Malmaison designed by Percier and Fontaine was designed to look like the interior of a tent. Striped textile pulled away to reveal painted doors similar to the House of Vettii in Pompei. Moreover, circular or oval tables were more typical than square tables. Animal feet at the bottom of tables and animal head at top was typical for table designs. 

Curule stool in the cross form mimicking military swords becomes typical, similar to the Roman Empire. Similarly, folding furniture for military style also becomes prevalent. Military success symbols are integrated in materials, furniture and design. Napoleon capitalizes on military campaigns through writing which is published in Paris.

In Napoleon’s room one can see a draped room and the drapery is held by a pin rosette. Bed has drapery on top. Animal paw feet are seen on the bed. A mirror hangs over the simple fireplace. The mirror is also draped. Simple dark columns are prevalent with dark marble or stone. Center table in the room is circular with a central support and three simple legs. Brass encircles the table. The bed is raised on a dais. In fact, a majority of furniture is set on a dais or have a dais built in so the base of furniture is comprised of solid rectangular form. 

Malmaison Napolean Bedroom – Image courtesy of Architectural Digest

https://www.architecturaldigest.com/gallery/chateau-malmaison-napoleon-josephine-bonaparte

Josephine’s bedroom includes symbolism of swan. Similarly, an eagle can be seen on top of the curtain holder, symbolizing egalitarian and strength. Circular space looks like a tent and a circular painting resides in the ceiling. Gold pulls are placed around the room. The scarlet fabric gives an outdoor feeling. The shield shaped mirror atop the dressing table with crossed legs is similar to campaign furniture. Thus, the furniture reinforces the feeling of a military tent.

Malmaison Josephine bedroom – Image courtesy of Architectural Digest

https://www.architecturaldigest.com/gallery/chateau-malmaison-napoleon-josephine-bonaparte

Klismos inspired and Gondola form chair with an integration of animal form is common for empire furniture. Wood is dark and gilding is bright. Strong contrast was deemed attractive during this time. Textiles that are very dark are draped on light furniture or vice versa. Furthermore, console tables with ebony, mahogany , gild in geometric forms can be seen. Mirrors are generally hung over the console table. Mirrors beneath the console table allowed the space to look bigger and increased light. Secretaire Abbattant or the fall front desks can also be seen. 

The Empire style marks the end of France as a style leader because after this era the Industrial Production commences and most of the styles that follow are revival until the 20th century. 

ENGLISH REGENCY

The American revolution destabilizes the English economy. George IV takes over and is not good with money, but he creates fabulous interiors. The Carlton House being the most glorious of them. Forms from ancient Greece and Rome are taken. There is an intense interest in collecting antiquity. Sir John Soane who was an architect by trade resided at 13 Lincoln’s Inn Fields. The exterior added light with the stone protruding portion to building with highly arched windows. This interior becomes a private museum. Each room becoming a display of his collections.The library is rich dark colours of Greece and Rome. Greek ceramics are displayed along with many books. The upper floor includes a sunroom that fills space between original and new facade for books. The core of the house is a museum. Each item is carefully chosen and arranged. He is experimental with light. Different type of light comes into the space and washes over the sculptures. Skylights include different coloured glass. The breakfast room contains an oculus at the top of a low dome which allows light to diffuse into the space. The side space is open arches that have skylights with another story above.

Moreover, The Bank of England uses skylights instead of windows to keep the bank secure. Blind windows are also included. Thomas Hope, published household furniture and interior decoration publications in which rich interiors elevated senses that made you feel transported to ancient times. Some rooms are Egyptian. Others are Roman or Greek. Daybeds and armchairs combined Egyptian ornament that look more Greek. Powerful, bold designs are evident. There is also interest in high contrast, dark wood, rich textile colour and bright gold. Stripes are popular as well.

Image courtesy of The Guardian

https://www.theguardian.com/business/2015/nov/10/inside-bank-of-england

Thomas Hope marries an English women and moves his collection to Surrey. William Atkinson and Thomas Hope to whom Hall Deepdene was attributed to, created a relationship between the way classical forms integrated. A fireplace with rich green marble, mirror with low pediment can be seen at Hall Deepdene. Heavy bold forms can also be seen. Mirror frames and fireplaces are bold. The center table is by Thomas Hope and has a heavy bold form, base has Greek palmette used graphically. The console table relates closely to France, with gild and large dark disks, dark metal with opposite graphic to France.

Thomas Hope Deepdene – Image courtesy of vam.ac.uk

http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/t/thomas-hope/

Furthermore, interest in integrating animal forms continues. Dark wood or ebonized wood is used. Curule form is integrated  into the base of the chair at the bottom. The front of the arm curves forward. Historical devices are used over and over again. Asymmetrical sofas with rich upholstery. Chaise daybeds included in sitting rooms or salons with bold upholstered form. Rich upholstery goes to end of bed contrasted with dark wood. 

Rectangular form tables with rounded corners are prevalent. Furthermore, leer shape as support is popular. Sofa tables are conceived which have two drawers; these are functional forms that can be easily moved around. Pedestals can be seen at the base of dining tables, which can fold or collapse. Drum tables have pedestal bases and three legs, sitting elevated and have castors. Top table is deep and encircled with drawers. 

Royal Pavillon at Brighton – John Nash remodelled 1815-1823 has a pure fantasy feeling. This is a holiday home for royalty. Exterior has forms from India and near east with onion domes. Arcades made of Indian inspired forms and lattice forms can be seen and none are European.

https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/the-royal-pavilion-brighton-england

Interiors are inspiration from China. The Banqueting Room has dragon motifs used for the chandelier. Ceiling has spray of palm leaves. Three dimensional dragon holds the chains for chandelier; also, lotuses and European crystal form part of the chandelier. Walls have murals of Chinese scenes. Furniture ranges from interpretation of exotic styles to pure regency. 

Image courtesy of Altas Obscura

https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/the-royal-pavilion-brighton-england

The Music Room expresses beginning of 19th century style which has strong interest in other, inspired by ones own culture. This helps fuel revival styles.

AMERICAN EMPIRE AND GREEK REVIVAL

The American revolution separates American culture from England temporarily. After the revolution society settles into a relationship that eases into England leading styles. America forms strong relationships with France as French monarch funds the American revolution because France is constantly at war with England.

America is a democracy and a republic thus sees a strong connection with Greek and Roman culture. The US Capital builder, Benjamin Latrobe has a very strong interest in Roman architecture. The Grand monument’s, large central dome connects to Ancient Rome. Greek revival becomes popular in homes, churches, civic buildings, banks. 

Boscobel Mansion in Federal Style has a Neo Palladianism interior which is Empire Style. The Grand Hall with an arcade offers the Grand Staircase. Thus, being the cusp of Federal and Empire style. Furniture by Duncan Phyfe, has simple upholstery, simple solid colour and banding. Drapers are large swags. The Chandelier is imported from France. Heavy rings reside at the base with swags of crystals and one ring of candles. The Parlour has a Federal arrangement. Crosses at backs of chairs are prevalent with swagged curtains. Carpet is wall to wall and has a small geometric repeat. With industry changing broader carpets are possible. The dado transitioned out and the wall is one solid colour. Gild bronze mounts are imported from France. Most popular chair form is klismos style chair. Circular table form becomes popular in the Salon or Parlour. 

Entry Hall Boscobel Mansion – Image courtesy of arts.gov

https://www.arts.gov/stories/blog/2015/blue-star-museums-spotlight-boscobel-house-gardens

The New York City Greek revival consists of ionic columns which divide the front and back Parlour. Furniture is influenced by Thomas Hope as circular tables with tripod bases can be seen. Wall paper scene brings sense of perspective.

Duncan Phyfe designed Federal and Empire chairs and he was a delicate and precise carver. Legs have strong saber form in back and front has flat curve. Furthermore, backs of chairs have a broad crest. Wood is used in a sculptural way. Quality and the grain of wood becomes important. Less mythical animal symbols which are more subtle animal features are conceived. Chairs entail a subtle klismos form as well.

Charles-Honore Lannuier was a French cabinetmaker during this era whose pieces are a smaller scale than France with less gild. Hugh and John Finlay Baltimore were known for their painted furniture and entailed bright and intense colours from pieta dura. 

AMERICAN EMPIRE AND GREEK REVIVAL LATE NEOCLASSICAL IN AMERICA

America was made up of people from lots of different places unlike Europe. Thus, the design becomes a very eclectic mix of all these cultural backgrounds. Some examples include the Windsor Chair which was an English design. The Windsor Chair combined with a rocking chair becomes the Boston Rocker.  

Information courtesy of New York School of Interior Design “Historical Styles 1” class